Prophet Muhammad ﷺ – The Final Messenger and Guide of Humanity
صلى الله عليه وسلم

Early Life and Background

Birth and Childhood in Mecca

Muhammad ibn Abdullah (peace be upon him ﷺ) was born in the city of Mecca, in present-day Saudi Arabia, around 570 CE, during what Muslims refer to as the Year of the Elephant (Aam al-Feel). This year was named after an extraordinary event when Abraha, the Christian ruler of Yemen, attempted to destroy the Kaaba with an army that included war elephants, but was miraculously defeated.

His early life was marked by significant challenges and hardships. His father, Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib, died before his birth, leaving him fatherless from the very beginning. Muhammad (PBUH) was born into the Banu Hashim clan of the Quraysh tribe, one of Mecca's most prominent families. According to Arabian custom, he was sent to live with a Bedouin wet nurse named Halima al-Sa'diyya in the desert, where he spent his early childhood breathing clean air and learning the pure Arabic language.

When Muhammad (peace be upon him ﷺ) was only six years old, his mother Aminah bint Wahb also passed away while returning from a visit to his father's grave in Medina, making him a double orphan at a tender age. Following his mother's death, Muhammad (PBUH) was placed under the care of his grandfather, Abdul Muttalib, who was a respected leader of the Quraysh tribe and the custodian of the Kaaba. However, this arrangement was short-lived, as Abdul Muttalib died when Muhammad (PBUH) was just eight years old.

The young orphan then came under the guardianship of his uncle, Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib, who would prove to be a supportive and protective figure throughout much of Muhammad's (PBUH) life, even though Abu Talib never formally embraced Islam.

Youth, Character Development, and Early Adulthood

Despite his difficult circumstances, Muhammad (peace be upon him ﷺ) developed a reputation for honesty and trustworthiness from an early age. His fellow Meccans gave him the titles "Al-Amin" (the trustworthy one) and "Al-Sadiq" (the truthful one). These titles reflected the high regard in which he was held by his community, even before his prophetic mission began. People would entrust their valuables to him for safekeeping, confident in his integrity.

As a young man, Muhammad (PBUH) worked as a shepherd, a profession that many prophets before him had practiced. This experience taught him patience, responsibility, and compassion for those under his care. He later became involved in trade and commerce. His uncle Abu Talib was a merchant, and Muhammad (PBUH) accompanied him on several trading journeys, including a significant trip to Syria where he met the Christian monk Bahira, who reportedly recognized signs of prophethood in the young Muhammad (PBUH).

These trading experiences exposed him to different cultures, religions, and ways of life, broadening his worldview and understanding of human nature. His reputation for honesty in business dealings further enhanced his standing in Meccan society. He never cheated in transactions, always fulfilled his promises, and was known for fair dealing in all commercial matters.

The Hilf al-Fudul (The Alliance of the Virtuous)

During his youth, Muhammad (peace be upon him ﷺ) participated in the Hilf al-Fudul, a pact formed by several Meccan tribes to protect the rights of the weak and ensure justice for the oppressed. This alliance intervened when merchants or visitors to Mecca were cheated or wronged. Muhammad (PBUH) later said that he would gladly join such an alliance again even in Islamic times, showing his lifelong commitment to justice and protection of the vulnerable.

Marriage to Khadijah and Family Life

When Muhammad (peace be upon him ﷺ) was twenty-five years old, he entered the employment of Khadijah bint Khuwaylid, a wealthy, noble, and intelligent widow who was a successful businesswoman. She was fifteen years his senior. Impressed by his honesty, character, and business acumen during a trading journey to Syria, Khadijah proposed marriage to him through her friend Nafisa. Muhammad (PBUH) accepted, and their marriage became one of the most celebrated relationships in Islamic history.

The marriage was remarkably harmonious and loving, lasting twenty-five years until Khadijah's death. Khadijah bore Muhammad (PBUH) several children, including four daughters who survived to adulthood: Zainab, Ruqayyah, Umm Kulthum, and Fatimah (may Allah be pleased with them all). They also had two sons, Qasim and Abdullah (also called Tayyib and Tahir), who died in infancy. Throughout their twenty-five years of marriage, Muhammad (PBUH) remained monogamous, only taking additional wives after Khadijah's death, primarily for political alliances, to care for widows of martyrs, and to strengthen bonds with different tribes.

Khadijah provided Muhammad (peace be upon him ﷺ) with emotional and financial support, allowing him time for spiritual contemplation. She was the first person to believe in his prophetic mission without hesitation and remained his steadfast supporter until her death in 619 CE, a year Muslims remember as the "Year of Sorrow" (Aam al-Huzn), as Muhammad's (PBUH) uncle and protector Abu Talib also died in the same year.

Restoration of the Black Stone

Before his prophethood, when Muhammad (peace be upon him ﷺ) was thirty-five years old, the Kaaba was being reconstructed after flood damage. When it came time to place the Black Stone (al-Hajar al-Aswad) back in its position, the Meccan tribes began to quarrel, each wanting the honor of placing the sacred stone. They were on the verge of warfare when they agreed to let the next person entering the Kaaba's courtyard decide. That person was Muhammad (PBUH), and everyone agreed to accept his judgment due to his reputation for fairness. He wisely placed the stone on a cloth and had representatives of each tribe hold the corners of the cloth together, allowing all to share the honor. This incident further demonstrated his wisdom and diplomatic skills.

The Beginning of Prophethood

Spiritual Retreats and the First Revelation

As Muhammad (peace be upon him ﷺ) approached the age of forty, he increasingly withdrew from Meccan society to meditate and reflect in the Cave of Hira (Ghar Hira), located on Mount Jabal al-Nour (Mountain of Light) near Mecca. He would take provisions and spend days and nights in spiritual contemplation, pondering the meaning of life, creation, and the condition of his society, which was plagued by idol worship, social injustice, and moral corruption.

During the month of Ramadan in 610 CE, while engaged in one of these spiritual retreats, Muhammad (PBUH) experienced a life-changing event on what would become known as Laylat al-Qadr (the Night of Power). The Angel Gabriel (Jibril in Arabic) appeared to him in his true form and commanded him to "Iqra!" (Read! or Recite!).

Startled and unable to read, Muhammad (peace be upon him ﷺ) responded that he could not. The angel embraced him firmly three times, each time repeating the command. On the third instance, the angel recited the first verses of what would become the Quran: "Read in the name of your Lord who created, created man from a clinging substance (alaq). Read, and your Lord is the most Generous, who taught by the pen, taught man that which he knew not." (Quran 96:1-5)

Muhammad (PBUH) returned home trembling and asked Khadijah to cover him with a blanket. After hearing what had happened, Khadijah comforted him and took him to her learned cousin Waraqah ibn Nawfal, a Christian scholar who confirmed that Muhammad (PBUH) had been visited by the same angel that came to Moses, and that he was indeed a prophet of God.

Early Preaching: The Private Phase

Initially, Muhammad (peace be upon him ﷺ) shared his revelations only with close family members and trusted friends. The first converts to Islam were:

• Khadijah bint Khuwaylid - His beloved wife, the first believer
• Ali ibn Abi Talib - His young cousin, around 10 years old
• Zayd ibn Harithah - His freed slave and adopted son
• Abu Bakr al-Siddiq - His close friend and companion, the first adult male convert

Abu Bakr's conversion was particularly significant as he was a respected merchant in Mecca. He immediately began inviting others to Islam and brought several notable individuals into the fold, including Uthman ibn Affan, Zubayr ibn al-Awwam, Abdur Rahman ibn Awf, Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, and Talhah ibn Ubaydullah (may Allah be pleased with them all). These early converts formed the nucleus of the first Muslim community.

Public Preaching and Growing Opposition

After three years of private preaching, Muhammad (peace be upon him ﷺ) received a divine command to take his message public: "Warn your closest relatives" and "Proclaim what you are commanded." He began calling people to worship the One God (Allah) and to abandon idolatry, which was deeply entrenched in Meccan society. He preached at the Kaaba, in the marketplaces, and during the pilgrimage season when tribes from all over Arabia visited Mecca.

Muhammad's (PBUH) message directly challenged the religious, social, and economic order of Mecca, where the Kaaba housed 360 idols and served as a center for pilgrimage and commerce. His call for social justice, equality, and the rights of the poor and slaves threatened the privileged position of the Meccan elite.

The Meccan elite, particularly the Quraysh leadership, viewed Muhammad's (PBUH) teachings as a threat to their authority and economic interests. They responded with increasing hostility, ridicule, mockery, and persecution. They called him a poet, a madman, a magician, and a sorcerer. Early Muslims faced harassment, torture, economic boycott, and social ostracism.

The Persecution of Early Muslims

The persecution was particularly severe for those without tribal protection. Bilal ibn Rabah, an Abyssinian slave, was tortured by his master Umayyah ibn Khalaf, who would place a heavy rock on his chest under the scorching sun while Bilal would repeat "Ahad, Ahad" (One, One), affirming his faith in the One God. Abu Bakr eventually purchased and freed Bilal. The family of Yasir were tortured mercilessly; Sumayya bint Khayyat became the first martyr in Islam when she was killed by Abu Jahl. Her husband Yasir was also martyred, and their son Ammar suffered severe torture but survived.

Despite these hardships, the Muslim community gradually grew, attracting followers from various social backgrounds, including slaves, women, youth, and members of lower social classes who were drawn to Islam's message of equality, justice, and human dignity.

The First Migration to Abyssinia

As persecution intensified, Muhammad (peace be upon him ﷺ) advised some of his followers to migrate to Abyssinia (modern-day Ethiopia) in 615 CE, saying, "There is a king there who does not wrong anyone. It is a land of truthfulness." About eighty-three men and eighteen women migrated, led by Uthman ibn Affan and his wife Ruqayyah, the Prophet's daughter. The Christian Negus (King) Al-Najashi provided them protection and refused the Quraysh's demands to return them, after hearing verses from the Quran about Jesus and Mary.

The Migration to Medina (Hijra)

The Night Journey and Ascension (Isra wal Mi'raj)

In 621 CE, Muhammad (peace be upon him ﷺ) experienced the miraculous Night Journey (Isra) from Mecca to Jerusalem and then the Ascension (Mi'raj) to the heavens. During this journey, he was taken by the angel Gabriel on the winged creature Buraq to the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem, where he led all the previous prophets in prayer. He then ascended through the seven heavens, meeting various prophets including Adam, Jesus, Moses, and Abraham, until he reached the divine presence where the five daily prayers were prescribed for Muslims. This event strengthened his resolve during the difficult Year of Sorrow.

The Pledge of Aqaba and Invitation to Medina

Muhammad (PBUH) made contact with tribes from Yathrib (later renamed Medina), a city located about 300 miles north of Mecca. Representatives from the tribes of Aws and Khazraj, impressed by Muhammad's (PBUH) character and message, met with him during the pilgrimage season. In 620 CE, six men from Medina accepted Islam (the First Pledge of Aqaba). The following year, twelve men returned and pledged allegiance to him (the Second Pledge of Aqaba). In 622 CE, seventy-three men and two women from Medina made the Third Pledge of Aqaba, inviting Muhammad (PBUH) to their city and pledging to protect him as they would protect their own families.

The Historic Hijra

In 622 CE, Muhammad (peace be upon him ﷺ) and his followers undertook the Hijra (migration) to Medina. This event was so significant that it marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar (1 AH - After Hijra). The migration was dangerous, as the Quraysh plotted to kill Muhammad (PBUH), assigning young men from different clans to strike him simultaneously so that no single tribe would be held responsible.

However, on the night of the planned assassination, Muhammad (PBUH) asked his cousin Ali to sleep in his bed wearing his green cloak, while he escaped with Abu Bakr. They hid in the Cave of Thawr for three days while Meccan search parties scoured the area. According to Islamic tradition, a spider spun a web and a dove built a nest at the cave's entrance, making the searchers believe no one had entered recently. After the pursuit subsided, they continued to Medina, arriving on the 12th of Rabi' al-Awwal.

Building the Muslim Community in Medina

In Medina, Muhammad (peace be upon him ﷺ) transformed from a persecuted preacher into a political leader, military commander, judge, and state builder. His first actions included:

• Building the Prophet's Mosque (Masjid an-Nabawi) - The first and central mosque in Medina
• Establishing Brotherhood (Mu'akhat) - Creating bonds of brotherhood between the Meccan emigrants (Muhajirun) and Medinan helpers (Ansar)
• Establishing the Constitution of Medina - Creating a multi-religious social contract
• Implementing Social Reforms - Addressing women's rights, inheritance, orphans' care, and economic justice

The Medinan period saw the continuation of Quranic revelations, with many verses addressing community organization, legal matters, warfare, family law, and the challenges faced by the growing Muslim society. Muhammad's (PBUH) role expanded to include judging disputes, leading military campaigns, conducting diplomatic negotiations, and guiding the spiritual and moral development of his community.

Major Battles and Military Campaigns

The Battle of Badr (624 CE / 2 AH)

The first major battle between Muslims and Meccans occurred at Badr, where 313 Muslims faced approximately 1,000 Meccan warriors. Despite being heavily outnumbered and outequipped, the Muslims won a decisive victory that Muslims attribute to divine intervention. Key Meccan leaders were killed, and this victory significantly boosted Muslim morale and established their military credibility.

The Battle of Uhud (625 CE / 3 AH)

The Meccans, seeking revenge for Badr, returned with 3,000 warriors led by Abu Sufyan. Initially, the Muslims were winning, but when some archers disobeyed Muhammad's (PBUH) orders and left their positions to collect war booty, the Meccan cavalry flanked the Muslim army. The Muslims suffered losses, and Muhammad (PBUH) himself was injured, with his tooth broken and face wounded. This battle taught important lessons about obedience and discipline.

The Battle of the Trench (627 CE / 5 AH)

A coalition of Meccans, their allies, and some Jewish tribes besieged Medina with 10,000 warriors. Following the advice of Salman al-Farsi, Muhammad (PBUH) ordered the digging of a trench around the exposed parts of Medina, a defensive tactic unknown to the Arabs. The siege lasted about two weeks, but harsh weather, lack of supplies, and internal dissension led to the coalition's withdrawal. This marked the end of Meccan offensive operations against the Muslims.

The Treaty of Hudaybiyyah (628 CE / 6 AH)

Muhammad (peace be upon him ﷺ) and 1,400 Muslims set out to perform pilgrimage to Mecca but were stopped at Hudaybiyyah. After negotiations, a ten-year peace treaty was signed. Although the treaty's terms seemed unfavorable to Muslims (they couldn't perform pilgrimage that year, had to return any Meccan who came to them without permission, but Mecca didn't have to return Muslims who went to Mecca), it proved to be a strategic victory. The Quran called it "a clear victory" (Fath al-Mubin). The peace allowed Islam to spread rapidly, and within two years, the number of Muslims doubled.

The Conquest of Mecca and Final Years

The Peaceful Conquest of Mecca (630 CE / 8 AH)

When the Quraysh violated the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah by attacking a tribe allied with Muslims, Muhammad (peace be upon him ﷺ) marched toward Mecca with 10,000 Muslims. The show of force was so overwhelming that Mecca surrendered without significant bloodshed. Abu Sufyan, the longtime leader of Meccan opposition, embraced Islam before the conquest.

Upon entering Mecca, Muhammad (PBUH) showed extraordinary magnanimity. He declared a general amnesty, saying: "Go, you are free." He forgave even those who had tortured and killed Muslims, including Hind bint Utbah (who had mutilated the body of his uncle Hamza at Uhud) and Wahshi (who had killed Hamza). Only a handful of individuals who had committed particularly heinous crimes were excluded from the amnesty, but even some of them were eventually pardoned.

Muhammad (PBUH) then proceeded to cleanse the Kaaba of the 360 idols, touching each with his staff while reciting: "Truth has come and falsehood has vanished away. Indeed, falsehood is bound to vanish" (Quran 17:81). He restored the Kaaba as a sanctuary dedicated to the worship of the One God, as it had been originally established by Prophet Abraham (peace be upon him).

The Battle of Hunayn and Siege of Ta'if (630 CE)

Shortly after the conquest, the tribes of Hawazin and Thaqif gathered a large army to fight the Muslims. At the Battle of Hunayn, the Muslims initially panicked when ambushed, but Muhammad (peace be upon him ﷺ) stood firm, and the Muslims regrouped and won decisively. The subsequent siege of Ta'if lasted several weeks but was ultimately lifted, with many from Ta'if later accepting Islam peacefully.

The Farewell Pilgrimage (632 CE / 10 AH)

In 632 CE, Muhammad (peace be upon him ﷺ) performed his first and only pilgrimage as a Muslim prophet, accompanied by tens of thousands of followers (estimates range from 90,000 to 124,000). During this pilgrimage, known as Hajjat al-Wada (the Farewell Pilgrimage), he delivered his famous Farewell Sermon (Khutbat al-Wada) on Mount Arafat on the 9th day of Dhul-Hijjah.

In this sermon, Muhammad (PBUH) asked his followers to testify that he had conveyed God's message. They affirmed with a thunderous "Yes!" He then raised his finger to the sky and proclaimed: "O Allah, bear witness!" This moment represented the culmination of his prophetic mission.

The Prophet's Final Days

Shortly after returning to Medina, Muhammad (peace be upon him ﷺ) fell ill with severe fever and headaches. Despite his illness, he continued to lead prayers until he became too weak. He instructed Abu Bakr to lead the prayers in his place. During his final illness, he freed all his slaves, gave away his remaining wealth in charity, and asked for forgiveness from anyone he might have wronged.

On Monday, the 12th of Rabi' al-Awwal, 11 AH (June 8, 632 CE), Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him ﷺ) passed away in the arms of his beloved wife Aisha, with his head resting on her lap. He was sixty-three years old. His last words were reportedly "Rather, the highest companionship in Paradise" (referring to his choice to be with Allah rather than remain on earth), and he repeated "The prayer, the prayer" emphasizing its importance.

The news of his death shocked the Muslim community. Umar ibn al-Khattab initially refused to believe it, but Abu Bakr calmly addressed the people: "Whoever worshipped Muhammad (peace be upon him ﷺ), let them know that Muhammad (PBUH) is dead. But whoever worshipped Allah, let them know that Allah is alive and never dies." He then recited: "Muhammad is not but a messenger. Messengers have passed on before him." (Quran 3:144)

50 Major Achievements of Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ)

50 Famous Sayings (Hadith) of Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ)

Prophet Muhammad's (ﷺ) Influence on the United Nations Charter

Teachings and Core Message

The Five Pillars of Islam

Muhammad (peace be upon him ﷺ) established five fundamental practices that form the foundation of Islamic faith and practice:

1. Shahada (Declaration of Faith): "There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah"
2. Salah (Prayer): Five daily prayers facing Mecca
3. Zakat (Charitable Giving): Obligatory charity of 2.5% of wealth annually
4. Sawm (Fasting): Fasting during the month of Ramadan
5. Hajj (Pilgrimage): Pilgrimage to Mecca once in a lifetime if able

The Six Articles of Faith

Muhammad (peace be upon him ﷺ) taught Muslims to believe in:

1. Allah (One God)
2. Angels
3. Divine Books (including Torah, Gospel, and Quran)
4. All Prophets
5. Day of Judgment
6. Divine Decree (Qadar)

Legacy and Historical Impact

Religious Influence

Prophet Muhammad's (peace be upon him ﷺ) most enduring legacy is Islam itself, which has grown to become the world's second-largest religion, with over 1.9 billion followers globally. The Quran, which Muslims believe was revealed to Muhammad (PBUH) over twenty-three years, serves as the primary source of Islamic theology, law, and guidance.

Civilizational Contributions

The society Muhammad (peace be upon him ﷺ) established became the foundation for a civilization that made remarkable contributions to human knowledge during the Islamic Golden Age (8th-13th centuries):

• Mathematics: Algebra, algorithms, and the concept of zero
• Medicine: Hospitals, surgical instruments, and pharmacology
• Astronomy: Star catalogs, astronomical instruments
• Chemistry: Laboratory techniques and chemical processes
• Architecture: Distinctive Islamic architectural styles
• Literature: Poetry, philosophy, and historical writing
• Geography: Maps and geographical knowledge

Contemporary Relevance

Today, over 1.9 billion Muslims around the world look to Muhammad's (peace be upon him ﷺ) example for guidance. His birthday is celebrated annually by millions as Mawlid al-Nabi. His teachings continue to inspire interfaith dialogue, social justice movements, and humanitarian efforts worldwide.

Conclusion: The Enduring Legacy of the Final Prophet

Prophet Muhammad's (peace be upon him ﷺ / صلى الله عليه وسلم) life journey from orphan to prophet, from persecuted preacher to established leader, represents one of history's most remarkable narratives. In just twenty-three years of prophetic mission, he transformed Arabian society, established a new religious tradition, and set in motion changes that would reshape world history.

His achievements span religious reform, social justice, legal innovation, humanitarian principles, and governance. His sayings (Hadith) continue to guide billions in their daily lives, emphasizing character, compassion, knowledge, and justice. The Constitution of Medina he established pioneered principles that would influence modern international law and the United Nations Charter, including religious freedom, collective security, equal justice, minority protection, and peaceful dispute resolution.

Whether viewed through the lens of religious faith or historical analysis, Muhammad's (PBUH) impact on world history is undeniable. Michael H. Hart's ranking of him as the most influential person in history recognizes his unique success in both religious and secular spheres—establishing a major world religion while simultaneously creating a political entity that united warring tribes, reformed society, and established principles of governance and human rights that were revolutionary for their time.

For Muslims, he remains the final prophet (peace be upon him ﷺ), the Seal of the Prophets (Khatam an-Nabiyyin), and the best example of how to live a life pleasing to Allah. The Arabic phrase "Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam" (May Allah's peace and blessings be upon him - صلى الله عليه وسلم) is recited by Muslims worldwide whenever his name is mentioned, a practice that has continued for over 1,400 years and will continue until the end of time.

For historians and scholars, he stands as one of the most influential figures in human history, whose legacy continues to shape our world fourteen centuries after his death. His message of submitting to One God, treating others with justice and compassion, pursuing knowledge, and constantly striving for moral improvement continues to resonate across centuries and cultures.

The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him ﷺ) transformed not just Arabia, but through his teachings, influenced the entire world. His emphasis on education sparked the Islamic Golden Age. His principles of justice and equality influenced human rights discourse. His humanitarian laws of war influenced international conventions. His emphasis on commerce and ethics influenced economic thought. His model of governance influenced political systems.

As we reflect on his life, achievements, and teachings, we find a man who was simultaneously a prophet, statesman, military commander, judge, teacher, husband, father, and friend—excelling in all roles while maintaining unwavering commitment to truth, justice, and compassion. His life serves as a complete guide, demonstrating that success in spiritual matters need not come at the expense of worldly effectiveness, and that moral excellence can coexist with practical leadership.